The Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education

Critical Thinking Exercise: Causes of Premature Death in America

Paula E. Bobrowski, Ph.D.

Pamela L. Cox, Ph.D.

State University of New York at Oswego

School of Business

Oswego, NY 13126

Introduction

            Critical thinking has been connected with employers’ desires for college graduates who are curious, analytical, reflective thinkers and problem-solvers (Pithers & Soden, 2000). Yet, students seem to enter higher education with an underdeveloped ability to think critically (Kuhn, 1991). It is little wonder that employers often find new hires lacking in critical thinking skills since the undergraduate curriculum in general and the business curriculum in particular often do not emphasize the teaching of these skills (Dehler, 1996). This exercise was developed for use in a first-year business course designed to develop students’ ability to think critically, and focuses on the following critical thinking skills: the ability to evaluate data as evidence, evaluate arguments, recognize errors in thinking and decision-making, and express ideas persuasively.

Overview

Before beginning the exercise students are asked to write down what they personally think are the main causes of premature death. They are then given the results of a study conducted by a health-advocacy group, Partnership for Prevention, that demonstrates the gap between what Americans think are the main causes of premature death and the actual causes (Business Week, April 17, 2000). Individually, or in small groups, students imagine they are managers for a major health services corporation and have been given the responsibility for allocating an 8 million dollar budget that addresses issues of the top nine medical concerns regarding premature death. They are also told they are being pressured to base their decision on what special interest groups think is important to the community. The special interest groups’ perceptions and demands for new services match perfectly with the perceptions found in the study conducted by Partnerships for Prevention. In addition to determining the allocation of their budget, students are required to justify their reasoning, prepare a memo or a presentation to the Board of Trustees of the health services corporation, and indicate what if any ethical concerns they may have. Students should proceed with the exercise as follows: 1) individually or in groups allocate their budget and prepare a memo or presentation to the board; 2) present their memo or presentation to the class; 3) discuss their decision and rationale with the class.

        The authors’ experience with the exercise indicates that it may be more effective in teaching critical thinking skills when done in groups rather than individually. Anecdotal evidence suggests that there are differences in rankings between those who do the exercise as individuals compared with those who work in groups. Another approach to the exercise might be to compare the results based on individual efforts with later group rankings to see if there are “gains” or “losses” in accuracy. The class might then discuss the group processes that potentially influence critical thinking skills.[1]

        In addition to providing students with an opportunity to develop their ability to think critically about organizational issues and concerns, the exercise builds business communication skills and introduces students to ethical concerns in business decision making. The exercise was developed for use in a first-year business course, but it could be adaptable to any class where the following topics are covered: business ethics, decision-making, and/or business communications. For a more complete description of the exercise see the appendix.

Evidence of Student Learning

        The exercise generally results in a lively discussion of business ethics, differences between perception and reality, and the influence that public interest groups have on business decision-making. Students in the authors’ first-year business course were asked to write a 1-2 page evaluation of the exercise. The following comments provide anecdotal support for the exercise’s effectiveness in promoting critical thinking skills:

“The reason that critical thinking is a major part of the exercise is that no matter what you choose to do, someone is not going to be happy. So as you do the exercise, you have to really think about the opportunity cost of your decision. I feel that it is a good assignment to begin the process of thinking critically.”

“I didn’t realize that peoples’ perceptions can be so different from reality. It gets you thinking if you should do what the majority wants you to do or what you feel is right. I liked that the exercise allowed students to discuss their ethical and moral concerns.”

“I was very shocked to learn that public perception is sometimes different from reality. What I liked about the exercise was that we got the chance to analyze data, put it in our own perspective, and write about it.”

Discussion

        In developing the exercise, the authors reviewed a number of approaches to teaching critical thinking (Johnson, 1998; Cederblom & Paulsen, 1996; Chaffee, 1996; Ennis, 1996; Ruggiero, 1996). We found that few exercises and assignments were specifically geared to the business discipline and that many only focused on developing one or two critical thinking skills. This exercise has much in common with other approaches used to teach critical thinking skills (e.g. – “Lost at Sea” or “Moon Survival) in that it asks students to identify their perceptions and compare them with reality. However, the exercise has the added benefit of asking students to engage in means of communication and persuasion specific to the business discourse by requiring them to prepare a memo or presentation to the board of directors. Writing is well adapted to encourage reflection and has been used successfully in business courses to develop student thinking (Dehler, 1996; Lamb, Lee, & Vinton, 1997; Locke & Brazelton, 1997; Emig, 1977). Shaw (1999) recommends providing students with an opportunity to orally present as a way of enriching the classroom experience, developing critical thinking skills, and improving the quality of work through input received during presentation. Tsu (1999) recommends that instructors emphasize classroom discussion and debate in developing critical thinking skills because students are more likely to comprehend and retain ideas when they participate in a discussion or debate on them. The “Premature Death” exercise benefits students by requiring them to write, present, and engage in classroom discussion in order to develop the following skills: individual and group decision-making,  oral and written communication, evaluation and analysis of arguments, and persuasion. The exercise also introduces students to the ethical realities of making critical decisions in the business context.

References

Business Week. (2001, April 17). Early deaths: Fact and fiction, p. 8. 

Cederblom, J. & Paulsen, D.W. (1996). Critical thinking. New York: WadsworthPublishing Company.

                Chaffee, J. (1997). Thinking critically (5^th Edition). Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Co

Dehler, G.E. (1996). Management education as intentional learning: Aknowledge-transforming approach to written     

composition.  Journal of Management Education, 20, 2, 221-235.

               Emig, J. (1977). Writing as a model of learning. College Composition and Communication, 28, 122-128. 

               Ennis, R.H. (1996). Critical thinking. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall

  Johnson, B.E. (1998). Stirring up thinking. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Co.

Kuhn, D. (1991). The skills of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Lamb, C.H., Lee, J.B., & Vinton, K.L. (1997). Developing a freshman seminar: Challenges and opportunities. 

Journal of Management Education, 21, 1, 27-43.

                Locke, K. & Brazelton, J.K. (1997). “Why do we ask them to write, or whose writing is it anyway?” 

Journal of Management Education, 21, 1. 44-47.

Pithers, R.T. & Soden, R. (2000). Critical thinking in education: A review. Educational Research, 42, 3, 237-249.

                Ruggiero, V.R. (1996). Becoming a critical thinker (2^nd Edition). Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Co.

Shaw, V.N. (1999). Reading, presentation, and writing skills in content courses.College Teaching, 47, 4, 153-157.

                Tsui, L. (1999). Critical thinking inside college classrooms: Evidence from four  institutional case studies. 

Paper presented at the  Annual Meeting of the Association for tthe Study of Higher Education, San Antonio, TX, November 18-21.

Appendix

Causes of Premature Death: Critical Thinking Exercise

Instructions to Students

What are the Causes of Premature Death in America?

Before beginning the exercise, write down what you think are the main causes of premature death in America.

Directions - The April 17^th 2000 issue of Business Week (p.8) presented an article that reported a study of the main causes of premature death.  The health-advocacy group Partnership for Prevention conducted the study in March 2000.  The findings demonstrate the gap between what Americans think are the main causes of premature death and the actual causes.  These results clearly imply that highly visible and emotional issues that are brought to the public’s attention through the media, politicians, and special interests groups skew our perceptions.  We frequently hear or read about the problems of drug abuse, AIDS, cancer and heart disease.  We are encouraged to vote for policies such as higher tobacco taxes or more spending on AIDS research or make business decisions regarding health issues.  The results of the study are presented in the table below.

Causes of Premature Deaths in America

       You are the manager for a major health services corporation that has always been responsive to its constituency and their demands. You have just been given responsibility for allocating an 8 million dollar budget that addresses issues of the top nine medical concerns regarding premature death.  You are being pressured by special interest groups to base your decision on what they think is important to the community.  These special interest groups are powerful and some of their most influential members make large monetary donations to your corporation for research.  Furthermore, they are vocal and have been known to have an influence on promotions made in the corporation. Their perceptions and demands for new services match perfectly with the perceptions found in the survey (see the diseases listed under perceptions above).  You also now know the reality or the true causes of premature death. 

        Individually or in small groups, discuss how you will allocate your budget. Be sure to justify your reasoning. Also, explain how you will present your decision to the Board of Trustees of the health services corporation where you are employed and indicate what (if any) ethical concerns you may have. Below are several options for communicating your decision to the Board of Trustees:

• Write a business memo or letter explaining your decision. Include two graphs depicting both the perceptions and reality of premature death.
• Prepare a PowerPoint presentation explaining your decision. Include two graphs depicting both the perceptions and reality of premature death.

Be prepared to share your decision and rationale with the class.